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Jaybro
Social climber
Wolf City, Wyoming
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Aug 10, 2011 - 04:22pm PT
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Okay, anecdotal, real world and not quantiviable; Grug said that when he blew out in Lucille the other day, it was partially because he could not keep 'pushing' at the sustained level required. Last winter Young Shanti trained with a personnal trainer for just this sort of Zip. I would interpret that as training to work at a higher percent of one's aerobic capacity,like near Vo2 max (or to increase same) or possibly to increase the time one can work anaerobically.
When I studied Exercise physiology at the University of Utah, I read a number of papers and articles on studies concerning these topics, but know of nothing specifically relating to climbing. in these fields.
Anybody else know of anything? Might be a topic worth pursuing....
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klk
Trad climber
cali
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Aug 10, 2011 - 04:28pm PT
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Last winter Young Shanti trained with a personnal trainer for just this sort of Zip. I would interpret that as training to work at a higher percent of one's aerobic capacity,like near Vo2 max (or to increase same) or possibly to increase the time one can work anaerobically.
yeah, these are the sort of regimes that are easiest to do metrics with and that have stacks of lit behind them. it's actually a really interesting lit, including the history of it. if i had more time i'd like to go trhough it more systematically.
ed, btw, i know this conference is coming up, if yer deep enough to want an excuse to visit nz:
http://www.education.canterbury.ac.nz/rock/
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jstan
climber
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Aug 10, 2011 - 04:33pm PT
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Per-Olof Astrand et.al. pg. 296
Anaerobic Processes
During light work, the required energy may be almost exclusively produced by aerobic processes, as mentioned, but during more severe work anaerobic processes are brought into play as well. Anaerobic energy yielding metabolic processes play an increasingly greater role as the severity of the work load increases. The anaerobic energy yielding processes have been briefly discussed in chapter 2(page 16). ....................
Someday I'll have to see how to work my scanner. Several pages of interesting plots follow.
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klk
Trad climber
cali
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Aug 10, 2011 - 05:00pm PT
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this is drifting a bit, but here's one of the pieces on the german expeditions and high alt. physiology research:
http://www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/ham.2008.1033
luft's papers are at ucsd. citation index will take you to a bunch of related articles. not super sophisticated, but pretty interesting. someone did a decent one on geo finch but cant recall the cite right now
ok, found west's paper on geo. finch. west was on the 1960 everest expedition, big name in ex phys, did the standard book on the history of high altitude physiology, high life
http://jap.physiology.org/content/94/5/1702.full
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MH2
climber
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Aug 10, 2011 - 05:52pm PT
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Ed is trying to be serious.
That's what makes the humor so welcome, and he knows it.
The pain has receded so a tip of the hat to rgold and El-cap.
Laughter is the second best medicine.
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Ed Hartouni
Trad climber
Livermore, CA
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Topic Author's Reply - Aug 12, 2011 - 01:13am PT
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Bertuzzi R, Franchini E, Kokubun E, Kiss M, Energy system contributions in indoor rock climbing, EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY Volume 101, Number 3, 293-300
The present study cross-sectionally investigated the influence of training status, route difficulty and upper body aerobic and anaerobic performance of climbers on the energetics of indoor rock climbing. Six elite climbers (EC) and seven recreational climbers (RC) were submitted to the following laboratory tests: (a) anthropometry, (b) upper body aerobic power, and (c) upper body Wingate test. On another occasion, EC subjects climbed an easy, a moderate, and a difficult route, whereas RC subjects climbed only the easy route. The fractions of the aerobic (W AER), anaerobic alactic (W PCR) and anaerobic lactic (W[La−]) systems were calculated based on oxygen uptake, the fast component of excess post-exercise oxygen uptake, and changes in net blood lactate, respectively. On the easy route, the metabolic cost was significantly lower in EC [40.3 (6.5) kJ] than in RC [60.1 (8.8) kJ] (P < 0.05). The respective contributions of the W AER, W PCR, and W[La−] systems in EC were: easy route = 41.5 (8.1), 41.1 (11.4) and 17.4% (5.4), moderate route = 45.8 (8.4), 34.6 (7.1) and 21.9% (6.3), and difficult route = 41.9 (7.4), 35.8 (6.7) and 22.3% (7.2). The contributions of the W AER, W PCR, and W[La−] systems in RC subjects climbing an easy route were 39.7 (5.0), 34.0 (5.8), and 26.3% (3.8), respectively. These results indicate that the main energy systems required during indoor rock climbing are the aerobic and anaerobic alactic systems. In addition, climbing economy seems to be more important for the performance of these athletes than improved energy metabolism.
Billat V, Palleja P, Charlaix T, et al. Energy specificity of rock climbing and aerobic capacity in competitive sport rock climbers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1995;35:20–4.
Over the past few years, competitive rock climbing has experienced increased popularity world wide. In 1989, the first six-event World Cup competition was held with all events contested on artificial modular walls. The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which oxydative metabolism is utilized in competitive rock climbing with regard to the climber's maximal O2 consumption (V'02max). V'02max was measured with two direct triangular protocols: the first from running ("running" V'O2max) and the second from pull offs performed with arms and before arms ("pulling" V'O2max). Moreover, V'02 was also before measured during two competitive climbing routes difficulty quantified 7b on the European numerical scale ranging from 5 to 9. However these routes had different profiles: route 1 was more complex from the informational aspect, holds being smaller and more difficult to see even though the second route was presumed harder from the physical point of view, the holds being bigger but the profile being steeper. The first and the second route involved only 45.6% and 37.7% of the "running" V'02max but 111.6% and 92.3% of the "pulling" V'02max. Heart rates (HR) were equal to 176 bpm and 159 bpm i.e. 85.5% and 77% of maximal HR respectively. Blood lactate collected three minutes after the end of the two ascents were 5.7 mmol/l and 4.3 mmol/l. The paired "t" test indicated no significant differences in heart rates for the two exercises condition i.e. climbing route. These results suggest that the competitive rock climbing elicit particularly arms since heart rate is high for a relatively low value of V'O2. Moreover climbing V'O2 closed to maximum "pulling" V'O2. However, V'02 and maximal blood lactate were significatively different (p .05). In addition, pre-climb HR responses were significantly higher (p < .05) than recovery HR in beginner climbers only. As expected, HR responses during climbing were significantly greater (p < .05) for route 2 compared to route 1 due to the increased difficulty of route 2. These results indicate that HR and RPE responses differ between beginner and recreational climbers during most conditions. The differences between the beginner and recreational climbers could be attributed to route familiarity, varied efficiency in climbing technique, a pressor response, or anxiety. These data show how climbers with varied skill levels respond during climbing and provide climbing instructors with information that may assist in designing climbing programs based on the individual skill of the climber.
Bollen, S.R. (1988). Soft tissue injury in extreme rock climbers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 145-147.
Abstract
Rock climbing is an increasingly popular sport. Its standards of difficulty have undergone a revolution in the past ten years. Regular training is now almost mandatory for the aspiring climber, but little has been published about the patterns of soft tissue injury to which climbers are susceptible. This paper aims to identify some of the common injuries that may be encountered, some of which do not appear to be associated with other sports.
Bollen, S.R. and Gunson, C.K. (1990). Hand injuries in competition climbers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, 16-18.
Abstract
All 67 of the competitors at the first British Open climbing competition were examined for signs of previous or present hand injury. The most important clinical findings were that 26 per cent of the climbers had signs of previous injury to the A2 pulley of the ring finger, and that fixed flexion deformity of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the fingers was present in 24 per cent.
Booth J, Marino F, Hill C, et al. Energy costs of sport rock climbing in elite performers. Br J Sports Med 1999;33:14– 18.
OBJECTIVES: To assess oxygen uptake (VO2), blood lactate concentration ([La(b)]), and heart rate (HR) response during indoor and outdoor sport climbing. METHODS: Seven climbers aged 25 (SE 1) years, with a personal best ascent without preview or fall (on sight) ranging from 6b to 7a were assessed using an indoor vertical treadmill with artificial rock hand/foot holds and a discontinuous protocol with climbing velocity incremented until voluntary fatigue. On a separate occasion the subjects performed a 23.4 m outdoor rock climb graded 5c and taking 7 min 36 s (SE 33 s) to complete. Cardiorespiratory parameters were measured using a telemetry system and [La(b)] collected at rest and after climbing. RESULTS: Indoor climbing elicited a peak oxygen uptake (VO2climb-peak) and peak HR (HRpeak) of 43.8 (SE 2.2) ml/kg/min and 190 (SE 4) bpm, respectively and increased blood lactate concentration [La(b)] from 1.4 (0.1) to 10.2 (0.6) mmol/l (p < 0.05). During outdoor climbing VO2 and HR increased to about 75% and 83% of VO2climb-peak and HRpeak, respectively. [La(b)] increased from 1.3 (0.1) at rest to 4.5 mmol/l (p < 0.05) at 2 min 32 s (8 s) after completion of the climb. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that for elite climbers outdoor sport rock climbs of five to 10 minutes' duration and moderate difficulty require a significant portion of the VO2climb-peak. The higher HR and VO2 for outdoor climbing and the increased [La(b)] could be the result of repeated isometric contractions, particularly from the arm and forearm muscles.
Cole, A.T. (1990). Fingertip injuries in rock climbers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, 14.
The sport of rock climbing has undergone a significant change in recent times with technically harder climbs being attempted more often. This has meant that climbers have taken to more training including weight training, using artificial climbing walls and more traditional "bouldering" i.e. training on natural outcrops and boulders. This increase in standards has led to injuries associated with more extreme use and training. This paper reports on a novel fingertip injury found in rock climbers.
Cutts A, Bollen SR (1993) Grip strength and endurance in rock climbers. Proc Inst Mech Eng (Lond) 207(2):87–92
The performance of competition climbers in laboratory-based tests of pinch and whole hand grip strength and endurance were compared to that of non-climbers of the same age, sex, and physique. Climbers performed significantly better, indicating higher stresses acting in the flexor mechanism, possible predisposing injury. Attempts were made to correlate the performance in the tests to climbing achievement, measured by current technical climbing standards. Although pinch grip strength increased with the length of climbing experience, there was no evidence that strength in the hands alone guarantees success in competition climbing.
Draper N, Brent S, Hodgson C, Blackwell G, Flexibility assessment and the role of flexibility as a determinant of performance in rock climbing, International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, Volume 9, Number 1, April 2009 , pp. 67-89(23)
Many climbers believe flexibility to be a key performance component, but this remains unsubstantiated under experimental conditions. The need for sport-specific measures of flexibility has been highlighted. The purpose of our research was to assess the validity and reliability of four novel tests of climbing flexibility. The four tests, completed on a purposebuilt climbaflex board, were the adapted Grant foot raise, climbing-specific foot raise, lateral foot reach and the foot-loading flexibility test. In addition, for comparative purposes, the participants completed two existing measures, the sit-and-reach test and Grant foot raise. With the exception of the climbing-specific foot raise all measures had good reliability (ICC = 0.90 - 0.97). The existing flexibility measures had a poor correlation with climbing ability. The lateral foot reach and the adapted Grant foot raise were correlated with climbing ability (r = 0.30; r = 0.34) and used together represent good field measures of flexibility. The foot-loading flexibility test was had the strongest correlation with climbing ability (r = 0.65) and could differentiate between climbing abilities (F3,42 = 8.38, p < 0.001) in a laboratory setting. Our findings indicate that flexibility is a key performance component for the sport when a climbing-specific test is used.
España-Romero V, Ortega Porcel FB, Artero EG, Jiménez-Pavón D, Gutiérrez Sainz A, Castillo Garzón MJ, Ruiz JR, Climbing time to exhaustion is a determinant of climbing performance in high-level sport climbers
We studied which physiological and kinanthropometric characteristics determine climbing performance in 16 high-level sports climbers aged 29.9 ± 4.9 years. Body composition parameters were measured with dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scanner. We also measured kinanthropometric and physical fitness parameters. The sex-specific 75th percentile value of onsight climbing ability was used to divide the sample into expert (<75th) and elite (≥75th) climbers. All the analyses were adjusted by sex. The 75th percentile value of onsight climbing ability was 7b in women and 8b in men. There were no differences between expert and elite climbers in the studied variables, except in climbing time to exhaustion and bone mineral density. Elite climbers had a significantly higher time to exhaustion than the expert group (770.2 ± 385 vs. 407.7 ± 150 s, respectively, P = 0.001). These results suggest that, among climbers with a high level of performance, as those analysed in this study, climbing time to exhaustion is a major determinant of climbing performance.
Ferguson R, Brown M. Arterial blood pressure and forearm vascular conductance responses to sustained and rhythmic isometric exercise and arterial occlusion in trained rock climbers and untrained sedentary subjects. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997;76:174–80.
Cardiovascular responses to sustained and rhythmic (5 s on, 2 s off ) forearm isometric exercise to fatigue at 40% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) and to a period of arterial occlusion were investigated in elite rock climbers (CLIMB) as a trained population compared to non-climbing sedentary subjects (SED). Blood pressure (BP), monitored continuously by Finapres, and forearm blood flow, by venous occlusion plethysmography, were measured and used to calculate vascular conductance. During sustained exercise, times to fatigue were not different between CLIMB and SED. However, peak increases in systolic (S) BP were significantly lower in CLIMB [25 (13) mmHg; (3.3 (1.7) kPa] than in SED [48 (17) mmHg; (6.4 (2.3) kPa] (P<0.05), with a similar trend for increases in diastolic (D) BP. Immediately after sustained exercise, forearm conductance was higher in CLIMB than SED (P<0.05) for up to 2 min. During rhythmic exercise, times to fatigue were two fold longer in CLIMB than SED [853 (76) vs 420 (69) s, P<0.05]. Increases in SBP were not different between groups except during the last quarter of exercise when they fell in CLIMB. Conductance both during and after rhythmic exercise was higher in CLIMB than in SED. Following a 10-min arterial occlusion, peak vascular conductance was significantly greater in CLIMB than SED [0.597 (0.084) vs 0.431 (0.035) ml/min · 100/ml/mmHg; P<0.05]. The attenuated BP response to sustained isometric exercise could be due in part to enhanced forearm vasodilatory capacity, which also supports greater endurance during rhythmic exercise by permitting greater functional hyperaemia in between contraction phases. Such adaptations would all facilitate the ability of rock climbers to perform their task of making repetitive sustained contractions.
Fuss FK, Niegl G, Instrumented climbing holds and performance analysis in sport climbing, Sports Technol. 2008, 1, No. 6, 301–313
In three different events (national climbing Championship, sport climbing world cup, and training session), one hold was instrumented with two 3-D force transducers. Subsequently, the mechanical parameters of climbing were defined and analyzed, and the force vector diagrams visualized for quantification of performance.
The more experienced a climber is, the smaller the contact force, the shorter the contact time, the smaller the impulse, the better the smoothness factor, the higher the friction coefficient, the more continuous the movement of the center of pressure (in specific holds), and the smaller the Hausdorff dimension (less chaotic force time graph). The Hausdorff dimension correlates highly with all other parameters and with the appearance of the vector diagrams, and is thus suited to serve as the most important performance parameter. Training improves the mechanical parameters. The measurement and analysis of mechanical parameters and their visualization in terms of force vector diagrams are a useful tool for quantifying the performance of a climber on a specific instrumented hold.
Gerdes EM, Hafner JW, Aldag JC, Injury Patterns and Safety Practices of Rock Climbers, Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection & Critical Care: December 2006 - Volume 61 - Issue 6 - pp 1517-1525
Abstract
Background: Rock climbing is gaining popularity. The injury patterns and safety practices of climbers have not been well described. This study seeks to identify the general injury patterns and safety practices associated with rock climbing.
Methods: An anonymous multiple choice, Likert scale, and short-answer Internet survey was posted on several rock climbing Websites. Data were collected autonomously for a 2-month period in 2004. Demographic data were obtained and subjects self-identified their three most significant injuries. Participants were also surveyed regarding safety practices and training. SPSS 12.0 was used for statistical analysis and p < 0.05 was considered significant.
Results: In all, 1,887 subjects reported a total of 2,472 injuries. The mean number of injuries reported was 2.3 (SE 0.14) and 17.9% reported no injuries. Sprains and overuse were the most commonly described injuries, whereas fingers, ankles, elbows, and shoulders were the most commonly injured body parts. Some participants (28%) reported climbing under the influence of drugs or alcohol and these climbers documented more injuries (p < 0.008). Most of the injuries (77%) occurred while climbing at or below the subject's normal climbing level. Climbers who participated in traditional climbing (p < 0.001) or solo climbing (p < 0.001) documented more injuries. Males had less helmet use (p = 0.019) and more illicit substance use (p < 0.001).
Conclusions: Sprains and overuse were common climbing injuries, with the upper extremity being the most frequently injured body part. Rock climbers who participated in traditional or solo climbing, or who have climbed while under the influence or drugs or alcohol, reported more injuries.
Giles LV, Rhodes EC, Taunton JE, The Physiology of Rock Climbing, Sports Medicine, Volume 36, Number 6, 2006 , pp. 529-545(17)
In general, elite climbers have been characterised as small in stature, with low percentage body fat and body mass. Currently, there are mixed conclusions surrounding body mass and composition, potentially because of variable subject ability, method of assessment and calculation. Muscular strength and endurance in rock climbers have been primarily measured on the forearm, hand and fingers via dynamometry. When absolute hand strength was assessed, there was little difference between climbers and the general population. When expressed in relation to body mass, elite-level climbers scored significantly higher, highlighting the potential importance of low body mass.
Rock climbing is characterised by repeated bouts of isometric contractions. Hand grip endurance has been measured by both repeated isometric contractions and sustained contractions, at a percentage of maximum voluntary contraction. Exercise times to fatigue during repeated isometric contractions have been found to be significantly better in climbers when compared with sedentary individuals. However, during sustained contractions until exhaustion, climbers did not differ from the normal population, emphasising the importance of the ability to perform repeated isometric forearm contractions without fatigue becoming detrimental to performance.
A decrease in handgrip strength and endurance has been related to an increase in blood lactate, with lactate levels increasing with the angle of climbing. Active recovery has been shown to provide a better rate of recovery and allows the body to return to its pre-exercised state quicker. It could be suggested that an increased ability to tolerate and remove lactic acid during climbing may be beneficial.
Because of increased demand placed upon the upper body during climbing of increased difficulty, possessing greater strength and endurance in the arms and shoulders could be advantageous.
Flexibility has not been identified as a necessary determinant of climbing success, although climbing-specific flexibility could be valuable to climbing performance.
As the difficulty of climbing increases, so does oxygen uptake (V-dotO2), energy expenditure and heart rate per metre of climb, with a disproportionate rise in heart rate compared with V-dotO2. It was suggested that these may be due to a metaboreflex causing a sympathetically mediated pressor response. In addition, climbers had an attenuated blood pressure response to isometric handgrip exercises when compared with non-climbers, potentially because of reduced metabolite build-up causing less stimulation of the muscle metaboreflex.
Training has been emphasised as an important component in climbing success, although there is little literature reviewing the influence of specific training components upon climbing performance.
In summary, it appears that success in climbing is not related to individual physiological variables but is the result of a complex interaction of physiological and psychological factors.
Grant S, Hasler T, Davies C, et al (2001) A comparison of the anthropometric, strength, endurance, and flexibility characteristics of female elite and recreational climbers and non-climbers. J Sports Sci 19:499–505
There is limited information on the anthropometry, strength, endurance and flexibility of female rock climbers. The aim of this study was to compare these characteristics in three groups of females: Group 1 comprised 10 elite climbers aged 31.3 ± 5.0 years (mean ± s) who had led to a standard of 'hard very severe' ; Group 2 consisted of 10 recreational climbers aged 24.1 ± 4.0 years who had led to a standard of 'severe' ; and Group 3 comprised 10 physically active individuals aged 28.5 ± 5.0 years who had not previously rock-climbed. The tests included finger strength (grip strength, finger strength measured on climbing-specific apparatus), flexibility, bent arm hang and pull-ups. Regression procedures (analysis of covariance) were used to examine the influence of body mass, leg length, height and age. For finger strength, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values (P < 0.05) than the recreational climbers and non-climbers (four fingers, right hand: elite 321 ± 18 N, recreational 251 ± 14 N, non-climbers 256 ± 15 N; four fingers, left hand: elite 307 ± 14 N, recreational 248 ± 12 N, non-climbers 243 ± 11 N). For grip strength of the right hand, the elite climbers recorded significantly higher values than the recreational climbers only (elite 338 ± 12 N, recreational 289 ± 10 N, non-climbers 307 ± 11 N). The results suggest that elite climbers have greater finger strength than recreational climbers and non-climbers.
Grant S, Hynes V, Whittaker A, et al. Anthropometric, strength, endurance and flexibility characteristics of elite and recreational climbers. J Sports Sci 1996;14:301–9.
There has been remarkable development in the scope and quality of rock climbing in recent years. However, there are scant data on the anthropometry, strength, endurance and flexibility of rock climbers. The aim of this study was to compare these characteristics in three groups of subjects - elite rock climbers, recreational climbers and non-climbers. The 30 male subjects were aged 28.8 ± 8.1 ( <x> ± S.D.) years. Group 1 (n = 10) comprised elite rock climbers who had led a climb of a minimum standard of 'E1' (E1-E9 are the highest climbing grades) within the previous 12 months; Group 2 (n = 10) comprised rock climbers who had achieved a standard no better than leading a climb considered 'severe' (a low climbing grade category); and Group 3 (n = 10) comprised physically active individuals who had not previously done any rock climbing. The test battery included tests of finger strength [grip strength, pincer (i.e. thumb and forefinger) strength, finger strength measured on climbing-specific apparatus], body dimensions, body composition, flexibility, arm strength and endurance, and abdominal endurance. The tests which resulted in significant differences (P < 0.05) between the three groups included the bent arm hang (elite 53.1 ± 1.32 s; recreational 31.4 ± 9.0 s; non-climbers 32.6 ± 15.0 s) and pull-ups (elite 16.2 ± 7.2 repetitions; recreational 3.0 ± 4.0 reps; non-climbers 3.0 ± 3.9 reps); for both tests, the elite climbers performed significantly better than the recreational climbers and non-climbers. Regression procedures (i.e. analysis of covariance) were used to examine the influence of body mass and leg length. Using adjusted means (i.e. for body mass and leg length), significant differences were obtained for the following: (1) finger strength, grip 1, four fingers (right hand) (elite 447 ± 30 N; recreational 359 ± 29 N; non-climbers 309 ± 30 N), (2) grip strength (left hand) (elite 526 ± 21 N; recreational 445 ± 21 N; non-climbers 440 ± 21 N), (3) pincer strength (right hand) (elite 95 ± 5 N; recreational 69 ± 5 N; non-climbers 70 ± 5 N) and (4) leg span (elite 139 ± 4 cm; recreational 122 ± 4 cm; non-climbers 124 ± 4 cm). For tests 3 and 4, the elite climbers performed significantly better than the recreational climbers and non-climbers for any variable. These results demonstrate that elite climbers have greater shoulder girdle endurance, finger strength and hip flexibility than recreational climbers and nonclimbers. Those who aspire to lead 'E1' standard climbs or above should consider training programmes to enhance their finger strength, shoulder girdle strength and endurance, and hip flexibility.
Janot JM, Steffen JP, Porcari JP, et al. Heart rate responses and perceived exertion for beginner and recreational sport climbers during indoor climbing. Journal of Exercise Physiology Online 2000;3:1–7.
The purpose of this investigation was to compare heart rate (HR) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) of beginner and recreational sport climbers during indoor climbing. Seventeen beginner (10 M and 7 F) and 17 recreational (10 M and 7 F) sport climbers climbed two routes that varied in difficulty (route 1 = 5.6, route 2 = 5.8 on the Yosemite Decimal Scale). HR responses were recorded at pre-climb, during climbing, and during recovery using a Polar XL HR monitor. RPE values were recorded after each climb using the Borg 15-point RPE scale. Significant differences (p < .05) in pre-climb HR, climbing HR, and RPE were found between beginner and recreational climbers, but not for recovery HR (p > .05). In addition, pre-climb HR responses were significantly higher (p < .05) than recovery HR in beginner climbers only. As expected, HR responses during climbing were significantly greater (p < .05) for route 2 compared to route 1 due to the increased difficulty of route 2. These results indicate that HR and RPE responses differ between beginner and recreational climbers during most conditions. The differences between the beginner and recreational climbers could be attributed to route familiarity, varied efficiency in climbing technique, a pressor response, or anxiety. These data show how climbers with varied skill levels respond during climbing and provide climbing instructors with information that may assist in designing climbing programs based on the individual skill of the climber.
Koukoubis TD, Cooper LW, Glisson RR, et al. An electromyographic study of arm muscles during climbing. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 1995;3:121–4.
Abstract
Upper extremity muscle injuries from rock climbing are common. Knowledge of the activity of specific muscles during climbing may allow the development of training programs to reduce these injuries. This study evaluated the electrical activity of the first interosseous (IN), brachioradialis (BR), flexor digitorum superficialis (FD), and biceps brachii (BB) muscles in seven climbers by integrated electromyography (IEMG) during finger-tip pull-ups. The climbers, with forearms pronated, performed three consccutive pull-ups. Each pull-up consisted of: (1) hanging using four fingers of each hand, (2) pullup to maximum elbow flexion, (3) slow return to starting position. The IEMG during maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) was obtained for each muscle separately, and the IEMG was normalized to MVC. During hanging, FD showed the highest normalized IEMG (0.64±0.20). During pull-up, the highest IEMG was produced by FD (0.69 ±0.25) and BR (0.67±0.19), while BB showed only 0.33 ±0.12 and IN 0.09±0.06. During lowering, FD again had the highest IEMG (0.74±0.24), while the EMG from BR was decreased to 0.42±0.14 and BB to 0.15±0.15. BR and BB showed an abrupt peak in EMG during pull-up and lowering, as opposed to FD which remained constantly highly activated, which suggests that FD does not contribute to elbow flexion even though it crosses the elbow joint. The high activation of FD and BR may explain their elevated incidence of injury during climbing. Thus, a reduction in climbing-related muscle injuries may be achieved by a training program that emphasizes conditioning of the BR and FD muscles.
Magiera A, Ryguła I, Biometric Model and Classification Functions in Sport Climbing, Journal of Human Kinetics volume 18 2007, 87‐98
Scientists have finally taken a greater interest in sport climbing and are trying to define the specific nature and structure of this sport discipline. Previously, studies concentrated on individual factors which affect sport climbing performance. In connection with the diversity and complex structure of this activity, there is a deficiency of studies attempting to describe a given phenomenon in a multidimensional way, which would form the grounds for further training optimization activities. The main research problem of this study was to present a biometric model, describing the best result in “On Sight” (OS) style men’s climbing, represented by Contestant Development Index (CDI). Studies were carried out on a group of thirty Polish sport climbing contestants of advanced level, who had an average sport level of VI.4/4+ in OS style. The analysis included 44 variables obtained by means of tests assessing the level of conditioning, coordination, somatic and psychological properties of the examined subjects. This helped in the successful (R2=0.93) explanation of climbing performance with the help of 9 features which best describe this phenomenon. Technique, VO2AT, Fmax., OSB-P, Contr., RR strength, Ape index, Com. r.r, Flex. Analysed during the study was the structure of Contestant Development Performance, also through discriminate analysis and 3 classification functions calculated with its help. Their role here consisted in the detailed selection of contestants for groups of different climbing advancement. Ten variables: Technique, VO2AT, Fmax. , Contr., RR strength, Ape index, Com. r.r allowed to make a very good qualification of the subjects to particular groups, with special distinction of the first group (first advancement level) from the rest.
Largiadèr U, Oelz O, An analysis of overstrain injuries in rock climbing, Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Sportmedizin [1993, 41(3):107-14]
Abstract
Between spring and autumn 1990 a study was performed with the goal of recording and classifying overstrain injuries due to rock-climbing and to define their causes. Of the 332 climbers participating in the study, 114 (34.4%) had suffered from at least one overstrain injury. The degree of climbing skill proved to be the main risk factor; with increasing climbing skills of the observed persons the percentage of injuries increased very substantially. The degree of climbing skill also was the only significant difference between injured and non-injured persons--injured persons had a climbing skill which was 1.3 degrees (UIAA) higher. Warming up was unable to prevent most overstrain injuries. A total of 237 injuries were described. 34.6% of these were long-term defects such as foot deformations and nail dystrophies of the toes. 65.4% were overstrain injuries; 90.3% of these cases concerned the upper part of the body and the upper extremities including the thoracic girdle, areas which are particularly strained in climbs of high degrees of difficulty. The areas affected were almost exclusively tendons, joint capsules and ligaments. By far the most frequent injury of the upper extremity was the proximal interphalangeal joint injury, followed by injuries to the proximal phalanx, the flexor tendons of the forearm and the distal interphalangeal joint. With regard to training injuries, finger injuries occurred most frequently in addition to elbow injuries. 51% of the overstrain injuries were severe, with healing times of months to years. Only 30% of the injured persons consulted a physician.
MAGALHAES J, FERREIRA R, MARQUES F, OLIVERA E, SOARES J, ASCENSAO A, Indoor Climbing Elicits Plasma Oxidative Stress. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 39, No. 6, pp. 955–963, 2007
Purpose: Indoor climbing is a worldwide sport with particular physiological and physical demands. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of sustained indoor climbing until exhaustion on plasma oxidative stress markers, and to relate it to whole-body dynamic exercise performed at the same percentage of maximal oxygen uptake (V˙O2max). Methods: Fourteen male indoor climbers continuously climbed a competition-style route until exhaustion. Oxygen consumption and heart rate were continuously monitored during the climbing exercise. One week later, subjects performed a treadmill running protocol with the same duration and percentage of V˙O2max as that of climbing exercise. Blood samples were collected at rest, immediately after, and 1 h after both exercise protocols to analyze plasma levels of reduced (GSH) and oxidized (GSSG) glutathione, malondialdehyde (MDA), protein sulfhydryl (-SH) and carbonyl (CG) groups, total antioxidant status (TAS) and uric acid (UA), and total blood leukocytes, neutrophil, and lymphocyte counts. Results: Compared with running, climbing significantly increased the %GSSG, MDA, CG, TAS, and UA and decreased the GSH and -SH content. Blood counts of total leukocytes and neutrophils increased immediately after and 1 h after both running and climbing (P < 0.05), although counts were higher in climbing than in running (P < 0.05). Lymphocytes significantly increased from baseline to 0 h, although they decreased below baseline 1 h after climbing (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Data demonstrate that indoor climbing induces plasma oxidative stress. Moreover, results suggest that an ischemia-reperfusion prooxidant-based mechanism related to climbers' sustained and intermittent isometric forearm muscle contractions might have significantly contributed to observed plasma oxidative stress.
Mermier CM, Robergs RA, McMinn SM, et al. Energy expenditure and physiological responses during indoor rock climbing. Br J Sports Med 1997;31:224–8.
Abstract
OBJECTIVES: To report the physiological responses of indoor rock climbing. METHODS: Fourteen experienced climbers (nine men, five women) performed three climbing trials on an indoor climbing wall. Subjects performed three trials of increasing difficulty: (a) an easy 90 degrees vertical wall, (b) a moderately difficult negatively angled wall (106 degrees), and (c) a difficult horizontal overhang (151 degrees). At least 15 minutes separated each trial. Expired air was collected in a Douglas bag after four minutes of climbing and heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously using a telemetry unit. Arterialised blood samples were obtained from a hyperaemised ear lobe at rest and one or two minutes after each trial for measurement of blood lactate. RESULTS: Significant differences were found between trials for HR, lactate, oxygen consumption (VO2), and energy expenditure, but not for respiratory exchange ratio. Analysis of the HR and VO2 responses indicated that rock climbing does not elicit the traditional linear HR-VO2 relationship characteristic of treadmill and cycle ergometry exercise. During the three trials, HR increased to 74-85% of predicted maximal values and energy expenditure was similar to that reported for running at a moderate pace (8-11 minutes per mile). CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that indoor rock climbing is a good activity to increase cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance. In addition, the traditional HR-VO2 relationship should not be used in the analysis of this sport, or for prescribing exercise intensity for climbing.
Mermier CM, Janot JM, Parker DL, et al. Physiological and anthropometric determinants of sport climbing performance. Br J Sports Med 2000;34:359–65; discussion 366.
Objective—To identify the physiological and anthropometric determinants of sport climbing performance.
Methods—Forty four climbers (24 men, 20 women) of various skill levels (self reported rating 5.6–5.13c on the Yosemite decimal scale) and years of experience (0.10–44 years) served as subjects. They climbed two routes on separate days to assess climbing performance. The routes (11 and 30 m in distance) were set on two artificial climbing walls and were designed to become progressively more difficult from start to finish. Performance was scored according to the system used in sport climbing competitions where each successive handhold increases by one in point value. Results from each route were combined for a total climbing performance score. Measured variables for each subject included anthropometric (height, weight, leg length, arm span, % body fat), demographic (self reported climbing rating, years of climbing experience, weekly hours of training), and physiological (knee and shoulder extension, knee flexion, grip, and finger pincer strength, bent arm hang, grip endurance, hip and shoulder flexibility, and upper and lower body anaerobic power). These variables were combined into components using a principal components analysis procedure. These components were then used in a simultaneous multiple regression procedure to determine which components best explain the variance in sport rock climbing performance.
Results—The principal components analysis procedure extracted three components. These were labelled training, anthropometric, and flexibility on the basis of the measured variables that were the most influential in forming each component. The results of the multiple regression procedure indicated that the training component uniquely explained 58.9% of the total variance in climbing performance. The anthropometric and flexibility components explained 0.3% and 1.8% of the total variance in climbing performance respectively.
Conclusions—The variance in climbing performance can be explained by a component consisting of trainable variables. More importantly, the findings do not support the belief that a climber must necessarily possess specific anthropometric characteristics to excel in sport rock climbing.
Nelson NG, McKenzie LB, Rock climbing injuries treated in emergency departments in the U.S., 1990-2007, American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2009 Vol. 37 No. 3 pp. 195-200
Background: Rock climbing is an increasingly popular sport in the U.S., with approximately nine million participants annually. The sport holds an inherent risk of falls and stress-related injuries. As indoor climbing facilities become more common, more people are participating in the sport.
Purpose: The objective of this study is to describe the prevalence, characteristics, and trends of rock climbing–related injuries treated in U.S. emergency departments from 1990 through 2007.
Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted using data from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) of the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission for all ages from 1990 through 2007. Sample weights provided by NEISS were used to calculate national estimates of rock climbing–related injuries. Trend significance of the number of rock climbing–related injuries over time was analyzed using linear regression. Analysis was conducted in 2008.
Results: An estimated 40,282 patients were treated in emergency departments for rock climbing– related injuries in the U.S. over the 18-year period. Patients aged 20–39 years accounted for more than half of all injuries. Fractures, sprains, and strains accounted for the largest portion of injuries (29.0% and 28.6%, respectively). The lower extremities were the most frequently injured body part, accounting for 46.3% of all injuries; ankle injuries accounted for 19.2%. Men were more likely to sustain lacerations (OR1.65; 95% CI1.03, 2.67) and fractures (OR1.54; 95% CI1.10, 2.17), whereas women were more likely to sustain a sprain or strain (OR1.68; 95% CI1.13, 2.51). Overexertion injuries were more likely to occur to the upper extremities (OR5.32; 95% CI1.99, 14.23). Falls were responsible for three quarters of all injuries (77.5%). Overall, 11.3% of patients were hospitalized.
Conclusions: Our results indicate that the most common rock climbing–related injuries are to the lower extremities and are fractures, sprains, and strains. More research is needed to determine how rock-climbers' characteristics, climbing setting, style of climbing, and use of safety equipment and training may affect their risk for certain injury patterns.
PAIGE TE, FIORE DC, HOUSTON JD, Injury in traditional and sport rock climbing, Wilderness and Environmental Medicine, 9,2-7 (1998)
The objective of this study was to compare patterns of injury found in traditional rock climbing with those found in sport climbing. A questionnaire was administered to rock climbers by mail, in person, and via the World Wide Web. Injuries that occurred while rope-protected climbing on rock were analyzed regarding the anatomical location and the mechanism and activity at the time of injury. Ninety-four climbers reported sustaining an injury while rope-protected climbing on rock. Most injuries occurred while leading and involved the upper extremity, especially the fingers. Falling was the predominant mechanism of injury on traditional climbs, and stress over a joint while attempting a difficult move was the most common mechanism on sport climbs. Potential for injury prevention lies in teaching climbers to recognize the limitations of the fingers as weight-bearing structures.
PETERS P, Orthopedic problems in sport climbing, Wilderness and Environmental Medicine, 12, 100 110 (2001)
Sport climbing is associated with unique upper- and lower-limb injuries involving predominantly the hand, elbow, and shoulder, and to a lesser extent the foot. Many pathologic conditions are limited to sport climbing. Physicians treating sport climbers should be aware of these unique injuries and overuse syndromes. This article presents an overview of orthopedic problems (injuries, overuse syndromes, and fractures) resulting from sport climbing. Sport climbing is defined in the context of existing mountain sports, and its characteristics and technical terms are presented. The etiology, diagnosis, and specific treatment for orthopedic problems associated with sport climbing are described.
Quaine F, Martin L (1999) A biomechanical study of equilibrium in sport rock climbing. Gait Posture 10:233–239
Abstract
One of the main objectives of the experiment reported in this article was to analyze the arrangement of the forces applied to the holds accompanying a voluntary right foot release in the hanging rock climber. The three dimensional reaction forces applied to the holds were measured using four holds equipped with strain gauges. The force arrangement after the release consisted of a tripedal stance on the three remaining holds for the vertical forces, and of a bipedal stance on two laterally opposite holds (left foot and left holds) for the horizontal forces. The general significance of the results was analyzed with respect to the mechanism of static equilibrium. However, before conclusions can be drawn, other climbing movements and positions must be analyzed.
Quaine F, Vigouroux L, Martin L, Effect of simulated rock climbing finger postures on force sharing among the fingers, Clinical Biomechanics 18 (2003) 385–388
Abstract
Objective. To study the forces applied by each finger in different joint postures simulating rock climbing gripping postures.
Design. Subjects in sitting posture applied fingertip forces perpendicular to horizontal force sensors in three different finger postures.
Background. Data provided by the literature indicate that middle and ring finger are commonly injured. However, no quantitative assessment of the forces applied by each finger related to the joint postures has been made.
Methods. Six elite rock climbers performed finger flexion in a single-finger task and a four-finger task. The tests were conducted in an extended posture, a curved posture (the joints belonging to the finger were flexed) and an intermediate posture (the joints were flexed, except the distal one which was fully extended). Each fingertip force was expressed in absolute value and in percentage of the maximal force capacity of the finger.
Results. The greater force was applied by the middle finger (20.8 N), whatever the posture. The relative involvement amounted to 105% for the ring finger in the curved posture.
Conclusions. The great force applied by the middle finger and the great relative involvement of the ring finger in the curved posture seem to be the main factors of injuries of these fingers.
Relevance
The analysis of force sharing among the fingers during different joint postures mimicking rock climbing is essential to a better understanding of finger injuries.
Quaine F, Vigouroux L, Martin L, Finger Flexors Fatigue in Trained Rock Climbers and Untrained Sedentary Subjects, Int J Sports Med 2003; 24(6): 424-427
The present series of experiments were conducted to access the surface EMG frequency parameters during repeated fingertip isometric contractions to determine if they can be used as a fatigue index under specific grip used in rock climbing. Electromyograms of the finger flexors and extensors were characterised in ten elite climbers and ten non-climbers. The exercise consisted in reaching 80 % of maximal isometric finger force as quickly as possible intermittently with a 5-s contraction followed by 5-s of rest until exhaustion (i. e. when the subject was unable to maintain 80 - 70 % MVC force range for the 5 s). The results clearly indicate that expert climbers performed significantly greater fingertip force than sedentary subjects (420 ± 46 N vs. 342 ± 56 N). This force was maintained during twelve repetitions (12.88 ± 4.96) in sedentary subjects, whereas the climbers maintained the force during nineteen repetitions (19.33 ± 4.84). The median frequency of both the flexor and extensor EMG power spectra decreased during fatiguing isometric contractions, but at different rates in climbers and non-climbers. In non-climbers, the results replicated previous findings, whereas in climbers the results were novel.
Rodio A, Fattorini L, Rosponi A, Quattrini F, Marchetti M, Physiological Adaptation in Noncompetitive Rock Climbers: Good for Aerobic Fitness? Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research: March 2008 - Volume 22 - Issue 2 - pp 359-364
The present investigation aimed to establish whether noncompetitive rock climbing fulfills sports medicine recommendations for maintaining a good level of aerobic fitness. The physiological profile of 13 rock climbers, 8 men (age, 43 ± 8 years) and 5 women (age, 31 ± 8 years) was assessed by means of laboratory tests. Maximal aerobic power (V̇o2peak) and ventilatory threshold (VT) were assessed using a cycloergometer incremental test. During outdoor rock face climbing, V̇o2 and heart rate (HR) were measured with a portable metabolimeter and the relative steady-state values (V̇o2 and HR during rock climbing) were computed. Blood lactate was measured during recovery. All data are presented as mean ± SD. V̇o2peak was 39.1 ± 4.3 mL/kg/min in men and 39.7 ± 5 mL/kg/min in women, while VT was 29.4 ± 3.0 mL/kg/min in men and 28.8 ± 4.6 mL/kg/min in women. The V̇o2 during rock climbing was 28.3 ± 1.5 mL/kg/min in men and 27.5 ± 3.7 mL/kg/min in women. The HR during rock climbing was 144 ± 16 b/min in men and 164 ± 13 b/min in women. The aerobic profile was classified from excellent to superior in accordance with the standards of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). The exercise intensity (V̇o2 during rock climbing expressed as a percentage of V̇o2peak) was 70 ± 6% in men and 72 ± 8% in women. Moreover, the energy expenditure was 1000-1500 kcal per week. In conclusion, noncompetitive rock climbing has proved to be a typical aerobic activity. The intensity of exercise is comparable to that recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine to maintain good cardiorespiratory fitness.
ROHRBOUGH JT, MUDGE MK, SCHILLING RC, Overuse injuries in the elite rock climber. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 32, No. 8, pp. 1369–1372, 2000.
Closed rupture of the flexor tendon sheath has been known to occur in the elite rock climbing population. However, only one study has investigated the prevalence of this entity. Purpose: To examine an elite climbing group in this country for the prevalence of pulley rupture and report on other commonly occurring injuries in the hand and elbow. Methods: 42 elite rock climbers competing at the U.S. national championships were evaluated by an injury survey and concentrated examination of the hand and elbow. Manual testing for clinical bowstringing was done for each finger, by the same examiner. Results: 11 subjects (26%) had evidence of flexor pulley rupture or attenuation, as manifested by clinical bowstringing. Injury to the PIP collateral ligament had occurred in 17 subjects (40%). Other commonly occurring injury syndromes are described. Conclusion: Our results and others suggest that closed traumatic pulley rupture occurs with significant frequency in this population. In addition, all subjects with this injury continued to climb at a high standard and reported no functional disability.
Rooks MD, Rock climbing injuries, Sports Med. 1997 Apr;23(4):261-70
Abstract
Three-quarters of elite and recreational sport climbers will suffer upper extremity injuries. Approximately 60% of these injuries will involve the hand and wrist, the other 40% will be equally divided between the elbow and the shoulder. Most injuries will be tendonopathies secondary to strains, microtrauma or flexor retinacular irritation. However, up to 30% of these injuries in up to 50% of elite climbers will involve the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) region. These injuries are more serious and consist of varying degrees of flexor digitorum sublimis insertional strains, digital fibro-osseous sheath ruptures and PIP joint collateral ligament strains. Early changes in climbing schedules, stretching and exercise habits, and protective digital taping are necessary to protect and rehabilitate these athletes.
Schoeffl V, Klee S, Strecker W, Evaluation of physiological standard pressures of the forearm flexor muscles during sport specific ergometry in sport climbers, Br J Sports Med. 2004 August; 38(4): 422–425
Background: Chronic exertional compartment syndromes (CECS) are well known in sports medicine. Most commonly affected is the tibialis anterior muscle compartment in runners and walkers. Only a few cases of CECS of the forearm flexor muscles have been reported.
Objectives: To determine pressure levels inside the deep flexor compartment of the forearms during a sport specific stress test.
Method: Ten healthy, high level climbers were enrolled in a prospective study. All underwent climbing specific ergometry, using a rotating climbing wall (step test, total climbing time 9–15 minutes). Pressure was measured using a slit catheter placed in the deep flexor compartment of the forearm. Pressure, blood lactate, and heart rate were recorded every three minutes and during recovery.
Results: In all the subjects, physical exhaustion of the forearms defined the end point of the climbing ergometry. Blood lactate increased with physical stress, reaching a mean of 3.48 mmol/l. Compartment pressure was related to physical stress, exceeding 30 mm Hg in only three subjects. A critical pressure of more than 40 mm Hg was never observed. After the test, the pressure decreased to normal levels within three minutes in seven subjects. The three with higher pressure levels (>30 mm Hg) required a longer time to recover.
Conclusions: For further clinical and therapeutic consequences, an algorithm was derived. Basic pressure below 15 mm Hg and stress pressure below 30 mm Hg as well as pressures during the 15 minute recovery period below 15 mm Hg are physiological. Pressures of 15–30 mm Hg during recovery suggest high risk of CECS, and pressures above 30 mm Hg confirm CECS.
Schöffl VR, Möckel F, Köstermeyer G, Roloff I, Küpper T, Development of a Performance Diagnosis of the Anaerobic Strength Endurance of the Forearm Flexor Muscles in Sport Climbing, Int J Sports Med 2006; 27(3): 205-211
The anaerobic strength endurance of the forearm flexor muscles represents the main limiting factor in modern sports climbing. Only isometric testing has been performed so far in order to evaluate this factor. Since climbing involves intermittent isometric contraction as well as dynamic movements, a pure isometric testing is too unspecific. The present paper demonstrates a specific performance diagnosis using a rotating climbing wall as a climbing ergometer. Twenty-eight male climbers performed a step test. According to their climbing level they were divided into three groups with different inclinations of the wall. Maximum blood lactate was 5.0 ± 1.3 mmol/l (mean ± sd), climbing length 39.1 ± 15.7 m, and heart rate 185 ± 10.7 bpm. The mean number of steps performed was 5.8 ± 2.5 and the mean slope of the blood lactate graph (regression equitation) was 0.57 ± 0.4. The specific climbing recovering ability is documented with the so called heart rate difference and additionally the positive effects of a non specific, aerobic, basic endurance training are demonstrated. A mathematical analysis of the most important performance limiting test results enabled us to determine a strength-endurance factor that can be applied for cross- and longitudinal-section comparisons.
Schweizer A (2001 ) Biomechanical properties of the crimp grip position in rock climbers. J Biomech 34:217–223
Rock climbers are often using the unique crimp grip position to hold small ledges. Thereby the PIP joints are flexed about 90° and the DIP joints are hyperextended maximally. During this position of the finger joints bowstringing of the flexor tendon is applying very high load to the flexor tendon pulleys and can cause injuries and overuse syndromes. The objective of this study was to investigate bowstringing and forces during crimp grip position. Two devices were built to measure the force and the distance of bowstringing and one device to measure forces at the fingertip. All measurements of 16 fingers of 4 subjects were made in vivo. The largest amount of bowstringing was caused by the FDP tendon in the crimp grip position being less using slope grip position (PIP joint extended). During a warm-up the distance of bowstringing over the distal edge of the A2 pulley increased by 0.6 mm (30 %) and was loaded about 3 times the force applied at the fingertip during crimp grip position. Load up to 116 N was measured. Increase of force in one finger holds by the quadriga effect was shown using crimp and slope grip position.
Schweizer A, Lumbrical Tears in Rock Climbers, J Hand Surg Eur Vol April 2003 vol. 28 no. 2 187-189
Abstract
Performance rock climbing places high demands on the hand and may lead to specific injuries. In a “one-finger-pocket” hold, the interphalangeal joints remain in 20–40° flexion. To increase the maximum force of the holding finger by the quadriga effect, the interphalangeal joints of the adjacent fingers become almost maximally flexed. Holding a “one-finger-pocket” with the ring or small finger leads to a shift of the deep flexor tendons which increases the distance between the two adjacent origins of either the third or the fourth lumbrical. This may cause disruption and tear of that muscle. An organized haematoma in the third lumbrical was visible by ultrasonography in one of the three cases described.
Shea KG, Shea OF, Meals RA, Manual demands and consequences of rock climbing, The Journal of Hand Surgery Volume 17, Issue 2, March 1992, Pages 200-205
Abstract
Types of rock climbing, hand-grip technques, and training practices used by rock climbers are described. A survey was completed by 46 climbers. Three fourths of the climbers reported a climbing-related injury; of these injured climbers, almost one half reported a hand or wrist injury. More than half of the injured climbers had been treated by a physician for their injury. More than half of all climbers reported distal interphalangeal or proximal interphalangeal joint pain while climbing. Case reports of three climbers with acute hand injuries are presented to illustrate the minimal effects of their residual deficits on their climbing abilities. A wider understanding of the manual aspects of rock climbing and an awareness of the patterns and incidence of injuries in this sport will facilitate prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation.
Sheel AW, Physiology of sport rock climbing, Br J Sports Med 2004;38:355–359
Abstract
Rock climbing has increased in popularity as both a recreational physical activity and a competitive sport. Climbing is physiologically unique in requiring sustained and intermittent isometric forearm muscle contractions for upward propulsion. The determinants of climbing performance are not clear but may be attributed to trainable variables rather than specific anthropometric characteristics.
Sheel AW, Seddon N, Knight A, et al. Physiological responses to indoor rockclimbing and their relationship to maximal cycle ergometry. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2003;35:1225–31.
Purpose: To quantify the cardiorespiratory responses to indoor climbing during two increasingly difficult climbs and relate them to whole-body dynamic exercise. It was hypothesized that as climbing difficulty increased, oxygen consumption (V̇O2) and heart rate would increase, and that climbing would require utilization of a significant fraction of maximal cycling values.
Methods: Elite competitive sport rock climbers (6 male, 3 female) completed two data collection sessions. The first session was completed at an indoor climbing facility, and the second session was an incremental cycle test to exhaustion. During indoor climbing subjects were randomly assigned to climb two routes designated as harder or easier based on their previous best climb. Subjects wore a portable metabolic system, which allowed measurement of oxygen consumption (V̇O2), minute ventilation (V̇E), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and heart rate. During the second session, maximal values for V̇O2, V̇E, RER, and heart rate were determined during an incremental cycle test to exhaustion.
Results: Heart rate and V̇O2, expressed as percent of cycling maximum, were significantly higher during harder climbing compared with easier climbing. During harder climbing, %HRmax was significantly higher than %V̇O2max (89.6% vs 51.2%), and during easier climbing, %HRmax was significantly higher than %V̇O2max (66.9% vs 45.3%).
Conclusions: With increasing levels of climbing difficulty, there is a rise in both heart rate and V̇O2. However, there is a disproportional rise in heart rate compared with V̇O2, which we attribute to the fact that climbing requires the use of intermittent isometric contractions of the arm musculature and the reliance of both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism.
Rock climbing has increased in popularity in the past 15-20 yr. Indoor sport climbing is a subdiscipline of rock climbing where climbers ascend an artificial climbing wall in relative safety. Competitive indoor climbing is performed on an indoor wall with routes that are established by professional route-setters. Despite the increasing number of indoor facilities, widespread popularity of this sport, and the development of local, national, and international competitions, the physiological responses to climbing are not well defined. The act of climbing involves sustained and intermittent isometric forearm muscle contractions (2); however, most previous studies have focused on anthropometry (10), injury (14,16,23), or strength and flexibility (5). Some investigators have attempted to quantify the metabolic cost of indoor rock climbing (2,11,19) and climbing using an indoor vertical treadmill (3,20). To date, no investigations have related the energetics of climbing relative to individual climbing ability. In addition, the relationship between maximal exercise capacity (i.e., maximal cycle exercise) and the metabolic demands of climbing has not been clearly established. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to quantify the cardiorespiratory responses to indoor climbing, during two climbs of differing difficulty, and relate them to maximal exercise capacity. Specifically, we hypothesized that as climbing difficulty increased, oxygen consumption (V̇O2) and heart rate would increase and that climbing would require utilization of a significant fraction of maximal values obtained during a graded cycle test to exhaustion.
Sibella F, Frosio I, Schena F, Borghese NA, 3D analysis of the body center of mass in rock climbing, Human Movement Science 26 (2007) 841–852
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to search for common patterns and for differences in climbing strategies in a group of recreational climbers. Twelve participants were involved in the study. Each participant climbed a simple indoor route consisting of a 3 m horizontal shift followed by a 3 m ascent for five times. Climbers could choose their own style, their preferred speed and holds. Their motion was recorded through motion capture based on passive markers. Results suggested that two main climbing strategies were used: the first preferring agility over force and the second preferring force over agility. We also found that our best climbers tried to minimize power during all trials.
Sylvester AD, Christensen AM, Kramer PA, Factors influencing osteological changes in the hands and fingers of rock climbers, Journal of Anatomy Volume 209, Issue 5, pages 597–609, November 2006
Abstract
This study examines the osteological changes in the hands and fingers of rock climbers that result from intense, long-term mechanical stress placed on these bones. Specifically, it examines whether rock climbing leads to metacarpal and phalange modelling in the form of increased cortical thickness as well as joint changes associated with osteoarthritis. This study also attempts to identify specific climbing-related factors that may influence these changes, including climbing intensity and frequency of different styles of climbing. Radiographs of both hands were taken for each participant and were scored for radiographic signs of osteoarthritis using an atlas method. Total width and medullary width were measured directly on radiographs using digital calipers and used to calculate cross-sectional area and second moment of area based on a ring model. We compared 27 recreational rock climbers and 35 non-climbers for four measures of bone strength and dimensions (cross-sectional area, second moment of area, total width and medullary width) and osteoarthritis. A chi-squared test for independence was used to compare climber and non-climber osteoarthritis scores. For each measure of bone strength climbers and non-climbers were compared using a manova test. Significant manova tests were followed by principal components analysis (PCA) and individual anova tests performed on principal components with eigenvalues greater than one. A second PCA was performed on the climber subsample and the first principal component was then used as the dependent variable in linear regression variable selection procedures to determine which climbing-related variables affect bone thickness. The results suggest that climbers are not at an increased risk of developing osteoarthritis compared with non-climbers. Climbers, however, do have greater cross-sectional area as well as second moment of area. Greater total width, but not meduallary width, indicates that additional bone is deposited subperiosteally. The strength of the finger and hand bones are correlated with styles of climbing that emphasize athletic difficulty. Significant predictors include the highest levels achieved in bouldering and sport climbing.
Conclusion
The results of this study suggest that the mechanical stress generated during rock climbing is sufficient to stimulate the bone deposition response. The relationship between measures of bone thickness and sport climbing and bouldering, and not traditional climbing or years of climbing, indicate that bone remodels to accommodate high-intensity mechanical stress and not to frequent low-intensity stresses, even if maintained over long periods of time. The results also suggest that it is possible for adults to deposit new bone subperiosteally, even if they have already reached skeletal maturity. The results do not support the findings from other studies that climbers have a higher incidence or earlier onset of OA.
Warme WJ, Brooks D, The Effect of Circumferential Taping on Flexor Tendon Pulley Failure in Rock Climbers, Am J Sports Med September 2000 vol. 28 no. 5 674-678
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine whether circumferential taping of the base of the finger increases the A2 pulley's load to failure in a model simulating a rock climber's grip. Nine pairs of fresh-frozen cadaveric hands, 20 to 47 years of age, were rigidly mounted in a specialized jig that maintained the finger in the climber's “crimp” position. Two of the four fingers of each hand were reinforced over the A2 pulley with three wraps of cloth adhesive tape. The flexor digitorum profundus and superficialis tendons were distracted until pulley or tendon failure. Overall, A2 pull
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Mimi
climber
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Aug 12, 2011 - 01:21am PT
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So glad sports research is so advanced but I can't help dwelling on the Gristle.
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Ed Hartouni
Trad climber
Livermore, CA
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Topic Author's Reply - Aug 12, 2011 - 01:22am PT
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is someone's zipper down?
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Todd Eastman
climber
Bellingham, WA
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Aug 12, 2011 - 02:00am PT
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"These results are interpreted as suggesting that this popular sport represents more an anxiety-type of psychological stress than a physical stress and as such is likely to increase moral fibre rather than muscle fibre." - Taggert et al. 1978
This was apparently edited out of the abstract list. Interesting take on the scientific method...
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Ghost
climber
A long way from where I started
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Aug 12, 2011 - 02:32am PT
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So glad sports research is so advanced but I can't help dwelling on the Gristle
What Mimi said. Not, of course, that I myself am dwelling on the gristle. (And nttiawwt if I did.) But really, what is it all about? Alex Lowe trained hard. Maybe as hard as anyone. And he got up lots of things that were graded harder than what you will ever climb.
But remember what he said when someone asked him who the best climber was?
"Whoever is having the most fun."
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Mighty Hiker
climber
Vancouver, B.C.
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Aug 12, 2011 - 03:05am PT
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you can spend the downtime tweeting yr fans, texting the broheims, and emailing ur sponsors.
And checking 8a.nu to see what's happening, and spray.
An interesting thread and subject - thanks to all the contributors. I admit I haven't read the whole thing.
Underlying all this is that human athletic performance allegedly has advanced significantly over the last century or more, and we've learned some more about how to maximize it. But underlying that is that we're a materially much richer culture, which is what makes it possible to do this stuff more than any training. An urban, educated society with disposable income and ample leisure time, ready access to cliffs and mountains, and good equipment and techniques, is the start. But then also knowing that there is (for most) decent if not good medical care for such injuries as we do suffer, and something of a social safety net if worst comes to worst. Although what we do now is for the most part much safer than what was being done on the cliffs and mountains a century ago, we can take much greater chances, knowing that there's much better rescue and treatment possible.
I also agree that solid all around fitness is an essential building block to a long, healthy climbing career, or recovery from injury. Strength, mental, flexibility, aerobics.
As for climbing itself, a lot of moderate climbing goes a long way in terms of training, or reacclimating after injury. Relatively few climbers are all that serious, by professional or world championship standards. No trainer, limited coaching, no nutritionist, no sports psychologist, etc. Which again tends to suggest that a lot of climbing success is simply time on the rock, and being used to being on the rock.
I've never really known what to make of sports injuries. I've had my share, properly treated, but often wonder about others with self-diagnosed injuries with vague symptoms. I once was in an event that billed itself as a world championship, an endurance event. (I've had harder, plus scarier, days in the mountains.) But the moaning about real and imagined injuries got to be a bit much at times. They weren't very good at laughing at themselves, something that climbers still have.
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MH2
climber
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Aug 12, 2011 - 03:22am PT
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An estimated 40,282 patients were treated in emergency departments for rock climbing– related injuries in the U.S. over the 18-year period.
Ye Gods!
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Elcapinyoazz
Social climber
Joshua Tree
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Aug 12, 2011 - 11:21am PT
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But remember what he said when someone asked him who the best climber was?
"Whoever is having the most fun."
I love this quote. Not because it's true, but because it is an instant tip-off to people who want an excuse for why they are lazy, untalented, untrained, unwilling to suffer, and think some kumbaya hokey-ass quote from someone being modest absolves them of those traits.
If you are on the inevitable aging related physical decline and have "retired" into duffer style outings that's one thing, but for the <60 year old and healthy set, this is just excuse making by the logical fallacy of appeal to authority.
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Ed Hartouni
Trad climber
Livermore, CA
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Topic Author's Reply - Aug 12, 2011 - 11:48am PT
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I'm having fun with this, maybe hard to convince some of you that it could be so. I have a newly delivered copy of The Self Coached Climber and will check it out.
Researching this topic has given me some insights, and confirmed some suspicions, and even supported some old contentions. I'll work to summarize what that mass of studies seems to tell me over the weekend.
Interestingly, it is possible that my left knee meniscus problem could have been caused by climbing, something that I didn't ever think of, since I had had problems there since high school soccer. But roughly 5 years of much more intensive rock climbing after having moved back to CA in 1995, and joined a gym sometime around then too, could have been a factor.
While the studies listed above have small sample sizes, for the most part, we usually decide on how to train based on our own experience, and compare our progress against our regular partners, at least the generation too old to participate meaningfully in http://www.8a.nu, here is some training advice from that site:
"Training/Jens: Most intermediate climbers could improve very quickly just by learning the hang-dog technique, i.e. using quick draws to bypass cruxes. Often, climbers below 7a struggle during their warm up just to reach the top of a route. All 8a climbers use quick draws frequently as they start working their first 8a+, meanwhile intermediate climbers are often both mentally and physically exhausted as they reach the anchor on their redpoint project... "
7a, for those who have missed out, is put at 5.11d, at least if you go to the Wikipedia page: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(climbing);, 8a is 5.13b...
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rgold
Trad climber
Poughkeepsie, NY
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Aug 12, 2011 - 11:56am PT
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[The Lowe quote] is an instant tip-off to people who want an excuse for why they are lazy, untalented, untrained, unwilling to suffer, and think some kumbaya hokey-ass quote from someone being modest absolves them of those traits.
Climbing is an individual sport. You get from it...what you get from it. There is no moral imperative to continually strain at the limits of your current ability---that is just one way to approach the sport.
In my experience, retiring into dufferdom (harsh, Elcap) isn't just the province of the aged mountaineer. It is, for many people, a periodic but strategic retreat from the pressures of accomplishment (pressures that come with an increased exposure to risk, at least for the trad climber). These pressures are surely a major component of the enterprise, but those who turn away from them, either as a temporary respite or as a permanent embrace of something mellower, are not necessarily suffering from some form of self-delusion.
In any case, both ends of the training intensity and motivation spectrum are susceptible to personality disorders, and self-awareness is not typically a feature of folks at either extreme.
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Ed Hartouni
Trad climber
Livermore, CA
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Topic Author's Reply - Aug 12, 2011 - 12:02pm PT
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Elcapinyoazz is a horse! he has paid his dues and knows how to reap the benefits of that discipline... I read carefully both rgolds and Elcapin... comments on training. Both inspirational. Freddy hasn't posted here yet, he has some insight on this topic too...
...while an individual sport, I am seeking some general principals on climbing training. My conjecture is that that starts with training for the specifics of the sport.
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rgold
Trad climber
Poughkeepsie, NY
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Aug 12, 2011 - 12:48pm PT
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Ed, don't get me wrong. Sport-specific training---which of course is based on my understanding, faulty as it may have been, of the meaning of specificity---is the only reason I got as good as I did, and training is the only reason I'm not duffering up 5.4's rather than 5.10's after 54 years of climbing.
While we are on the subject, allow me to interpose some of my own pseudo-scientific conclusions about training:
(1) As long as the exercises themselves or the approach to them doesn't injure you (think Crossfit), anything is better than nothing, which is why everyone thinks their exercise routine, no matter how whacky, has improved their climbing.
(2) Exercises that tire you in ways analogous to climbing are the ones that will provide the most benefit. In other words, try various routines, but compare the soreness of new exercises to what you experience climbing, and only choose to continue things that replicate your climbing fatigue. (Exception: exercises done for injury prevention.)
(3) Is it too obvious to suggest that exercise that replicate climbing motions are the most appropriate? (Some routines seem to pay no attention to this idea.) This means, in the weight room, that there should probably be a premium on pulley exercises. Although I can't say I've tried many personally, I can think of a whole bunch of pressing and cross-pressure movements that would probably be a good thing...
(4) If you have the opportunity, look for exercises that good climbers are already pretty good at "off the couch." The fact that good climbers have somehow developed the strength means, even in the absence of obvious connections, that it is probably worth developing.
A case in point here is front levers. After a very long period observation in all sorts of different types of gyms, I can virtually guarantee you that climbers come far closer to being able to perform front levers than any other group of athletes (gymnasts excluded, of course). This means to me that front lever training is a good upper-body exercise for climbing; we don't have to hypothesize what exactly it is good for (and I'm pretty confident that it is not particularly good for helping keep your feet placed on extreme overhangs and is not some kind of especially effective core exercise). I realize this is a correlation=causation argument, and yet I think it has merit nonetheless.
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Elcapinyoazz
Social climber
Joshua Tree
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Aug 12, 2011 - 01:07pm PT
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fffzzzzzzzzz...strap me in Capt, I got a big one on the line!
That was partially in jest Mr. G, sure many people approach climbing as a pleasure outing and pushing themselves isn't on the agenda. Nothing wrong with that. But the term "best" has a pretty clear meaning, and I hear that Lowe quote over and over and over again, almost always from people who want to insulate their ego from the fact that they aren't half the climber they could be if they were willing to work.
Most intermediate climbers could improve very quickly just by learning the hang-dog technique, i.e. using quick draws to bypass cruxes. Often, climbers below 7a struggle during their warm up just to reach the top of a route. All 8a climbers use quick draws frequently as they start working their first 8a+, meanwhile intermediate climbers are often both mentally and physically exhausted as they reach the anchor on their redpoint project...
There's some merit in that suggestion. Most will certainly redpoint quicker and get more routes done over a season that way. And doing more variety of routes at your limit will likely make you a better climber.
I spent last winter climbing with a partner who is waaaayyyy better than me. Guy has assembled probably the most impressive ticklist in our home area of anyone, ever. The best thing I learned from him was tactics and how to approach hard routes at your limit. Seeing him work a route was a minor revelation.
He would suss out the moves on something almost a move at a time, try every conceivable sequence on a difficult move even after having found a sequence that worked, and would generally conserve energy while working something so he could really get the most value out of the session before becoming too tired to continue. He didn't waste time or energy repeatedly climbing sections that he knew he could climb that were still physically demanding but wouldn't stop him (say 5.11+ sections of a 5.13 route)Belaying him working a project would be like - climb two moves, "take. lower me a foot", pull halfway into a move using a different sequence, "take. that kinda sucks. climbing...that doesn't feel right, take", settles on best sequence, climbs it, "lower me. stop", does the sequence again, etc.
Every critical hold brushed and chalked. Gear placements figured out. Rest spots figured out. Show up when sun/shade/wind/temp conditions would be good. Might do a couple TR laps once it was all figured out, might not. And once he had it sussed, he would be on lead. And he was open minded. I am hysterically weak compared to him, quite a bit shorter so require different beta half the time, and don't move nearly as well. But occasionally he would still end up switching to my beta on moves instead of what he'd initially figured out, partly because seeing I'd done it differently he would try my way just like he tried everything he could think of, and probably because he knew if I could get up it with a certain sequence that sequence was bound to be relatively easy for him (otherwise it would shut me down).
A lot of the things are common sense, but to see someone methodically put the entire set of tactics into place as a std practice, really opened my eyes.
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